Infrared (IR)-to-visible up-conversion devices have been a subject of research interest because of their applications for pixelless imaging. Various types of IR photodetectors such as inorganic compound semiconductor photodetectors, organic photodetectors, and colloidal quantum dot (CQD) photodetectors have been used to fabricate up-conversion devices. However, the resulting external quantum efficiencies of the up-conversion devices are low (e.g., less than 10% efficiency in converting IR photons to visible photons).